It represented adult male citizenship and its attendant rights, freedoms and responsibilities traditionally given at a father's discretion to his son during the feast of Liberalia, to mark the onset of puberty and legal "coming of age", at around 14 years of age or more. Toga virilis ("toga of manhood") also known as toga alba or toga pura: A plain white toga, worn on formal occasions by adult male commoners, and by senators not having a curule magistracy.There were many kinds of toga, each reserved by custom to a particular usage or social class. The Romans considered it unique to themselves, thus their poetic description by Virgil and Martial as the gens togata ('toga-wearing race'). It was considered formal wear and was generally reserved for citizens.
The toga was an approximately semi-circular woollen cloth, usually white, worn draped over the left shoulder and around the body: the word "toga" probably derives from tegere, to cover.
Eventually, it was worn only by the highest classes for ceremonial occasions. It gradually fell out of use, firstly among citizens of the lower class, then those of the middle class. When circumstances allowed, those otherwise entitled or obliged to wear it opted for more comfortable, casual garments. It was and is considered ancient Rome's "national costume" as such, it had great symbolic value however even among Romans, it was hard to put on, uncomfortable and challenging to wear correctly, and never truly popular. Various laws and customs restricted its use to citizens, who were required to wear it for public festivals and civic duties.įrom its probable beginnings as a simple, practical work-garment, the toga became more voluminous, complex, and costly, increasingly unsuited to anything but formal and ceremonial use. The type of toga worn reflected a citizen's rank in the civil hierarchy. Women found guilty of adultery and women engaged in prostitution might have provided the main exceptions to this rule. As Roman women gradually adopted the stola, the toga was recognized as formal wear for male Roman citizens. In Roman historical tradition, it is said to have been the favored dress of Romulus, Rome's founder it was also thought to have originally been worn by both sexes, and by the citizen-military. It was usually woven from white wool, and was worn over a tunic. The toga ( / ˈ t oʊ ɡ ə/, Classical Latin: ), a distinctive garment of ancient Rome, was a roughly semicircular cloth, between 12 and 20 feet (3.7 and 6.1 m) in length, draped over the shoulders and around the body. The study, published in the journal Indoor and Built Environment, ruefully concludes: "Though real-time airborne chalk dust generation was found to be low in this study … and did not contain toxic materials, chalk dust could be harmful to allergic persons and may cause lacrimation and breathing troubles in the long run and certainly is a constant nuisance in classrooms as it may soil clothes, body parts, audiovisual aids and study materials.Statue of the Emperor Tiberius showing the draped toga of the 1st century AD. But chalk still enjoys wide usage in many countries. The scientists acknowledge that chalk and chalkboards these days are being supplanted, in many schools, by whiteboards and other more modern, less intrinsically dusty technology. As per current state of knowledge on particulate matter vis-a-vis chalk dust, it "may remain suspended in air for some time before settling on the floor and body parts of the teachers and pupils". The report explains that in schools that still use chalk, teachers brave the greatest direct risk: "During teaching, entry of chalk dust in the respiratory system through nasopharyngeal region and mouth could be extensive in teachers due to their proximity to the board and frequent opening of mouth during lectures and occasional gasping and heavier breathing due to exhaustion.
#CHALBOARD HEART OVERLAY WINDOWS#
"All the windows and the only door were closed airtight", the "fans present in the classroom were not operated", and "personal movement in the classroom was completely restricted during the experiment to minimise resuspension of dust from floor".
The researchers tried to ensure maximally pure conditions for the measurements. Their experiment featured three kinds of chalk, one blackboard, an eraser, an aerosol spectrometer (to measure and record the amount of dust floating in the air), and a Cilas model 1180 particle-size analyser. They collected chalk dust from the air, and also the dust that fell on to a long sheet of paper laid over the base of the blackboard. The team weighed each piece of chalk before and after using it.
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